Life, Death
and Disease in the City
Adina Chua
This week’s reading by Michael Hebbert
primarily emphasizes on the relationship between town planning and public
health, of which can be demonstrated through two paradigms.
The first paradigm discusses the importance
of street ventilation for public health. During the early nineteenth century,
the main goal for the sanitary movement was to achieve a fall in mortality rate
and increased life expectancy. Contaminated air was amongst the major health
concerns of the time, being weighed just as heavily as concerns for water and
sewage, which arose soon after. Filthy air accumulated from decomposing
carcasses, waste and other organic matter caused fresh air to be a privilege to
have. Enclosed buildings and inadequate street designs, cul-de-sac and narrow
streets for instance, were the fundamental causes for poor air quality.
Cul-de-sacs inhibited the free movement of
air and allowed for the accumulation of dirt. Town planners opted for a
different approach known as the concept of thoroughfares where streets were
wide and intercepted one another. This not only promoted better air quality but
also allowed for public interaction through open spaces. However, the success
of standardizing an urban area with an open layout caused for much dispute.
Those who had properties of their own were unwilling to permit this change and
modification; hence they were compelled to practice their rights of ownership,
as adjustments to the urban layout were also unfamiliar grounds to the public. This
led to a delayed advancement of street infrastructure.
Nonetheless, with evident improvements in
public health, people were convinced and gave support to their local
government. Epidemiology played a significant role as it helped to better
understand the cause of these illnesses through mapping and analyzing. Take for
example, the discovery by John Snow that cholera was water borne during the 19th
century epidemics in London. The mapping of areas mainly affected by the
disease pointed out the root of the problem.
With such an established street design, there
wasn’t much thought on how the lack of greenery would affect the public
physically and psychologically. There were fewer human-environmental
relationships, which made people seem sickly. This unsettling state led to the
concept of The Garden City and also the progress towards suburbia. Urban
developments began to sprawl into the outer suburbs instead of promoting urban
density. Society favors a country-like feel of being surrounded by greenery and
minimal noise disturbances, as dense urban living was deemed unhealthy. Thus,
cul-de-sacs became a positive characteristic to have in the neighbourhood as it
minimizes congestion and noises.
Figure 1:
The garden city leading to cul-de-sac
http://cdn.citylab.com/media/img/citylab/2011/09/18/gridlead/lead_large.jpg
During this time, town planning still focused
on preventive medicine and how the environment affected human health in
comparison to the science of bacteriology. The Garden City caused for less
public interaction as there were lack of social infrastructure and also
isolated from the central urban area.
The second paradigm discusses about the
neighbourhood unit through the eugenic movement. The Eugenics Society emphasizes
on the improvement of the human race by carrying out ‘biological cultivation’.
They thought that if the desired genes were selected and made to procreate, it
would improve the genetic quality of the human population.
Preventive medicine was of importance during
the eugenics movement because even though selective genes were made to procreate,
the public still had to be proactive and refrain from illnesses. There was a
need for the continuation of these well-endowed traits as well as the delivery
of this concept to the public. Preventive medicine would promote a
community-based society where people could interact whilst carrying out
activities instead of being segregated in their respective suburban areas. Town
planners play an important role in ensuring that all these amenities link to
one another for easy access.
The clean sweep approach requires the
reconstruction of the entire urban area on the basis of the cellular principle.
Where an open layout was desired but also the linkage of all amenities. This
would increase courtship and birth rates as well as promote better family ties.
However, these ideas were implemented momentarily or even non-existent as the
National Health Service (NHS) of London was placed under ministerial control
instead of community physicians. This was also the case in Melbourne where the
Legislative and Local council were in dispute to see who was responsible for
the sewerage and water supply. This shows that each form of government wanted a
part over the advancement of urban areas and to prove that they have the
ability to bring success.
It was unfamiliar at the time for the
combination of social infrastructure to be integrated into residential areas. In
addition, the NHS was more reliant on doctors than preventive medicine. Thus,
NHS took matters into their own hands and without aid from town planners, public
health including its environmental surroundings manage to improve, however not
completely. Hence, town planners were criticized for all the justifications and
changes made which costs significant adjustments for society.
As stated earlier, the relationship between
public health and town planning could be observed through two paradigms.
However, during the turn of the 19th century, with new ideas and
discussions, a third paradigm emerged. The two important concepts were ‘New
Urbanism’ and ‘New Public Health’.
‘New Public Health’ came about due to
research showing that in modern times, environmental hygiene can result in
longer life expectancy in comparison to clinical interference. This falls back
to the concept of preventive medicine. The World Health Organization (WHO)
disputed against the dependence on clinical practitioners. The public needs to
grasp an insight into the relationship between how the natural environment will
affect the built environment as well as public health. Despite shifting back
towards preventive medicine, the “New Public Health” people did not contemplate
on town planning. It was much more on how to educate the public of this new
approach.
“New Urbanism” is much like the urban
environment we live in today and is greatly influenced by town planning. It
intends to encourage a denser urban living with mixed-use of streets. Instead
of confined cul-de-sacs as a place of social interaction, thoroughfares and
public spaces would take its place. This concept aims at creating a society
that merges confidently and adequately through a neighbourhood surrounded with
different social infrastructures. Take for instance; a street-based
neighbourhood would promote pedestrianism and greater interaction with
different individuals. With urban density, the city is able to promote public
transportation, which will reduce the use of cars. Hence, another important
factor of “New Urbanism” is that it draws upon environmental sustainability.
Figure 2:
“New Urbanism”
http://www.powerhousegrowers.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/new-urbanism-ridge-hill-planned-community.jpg
No comments:
Post a Comment