Topic 4B: Urban Water Courses

Urban Water Courses

Tim Van Til

Urban watercourses have many uses in cities - one main use being for transportation of sewage and waste. Without these watercourses, waste would build up on the streets and the outbreak of disease was imminent. For example, Cholera is a disease that affected large numbers of people living in cities, due to the contamination of drinking water. Having proper watercourses helped to prevent the spread of this disease, as clean water could be delivered to houses, and separation of sewage and drinking water was made possible.

Whilst transportation of sewage isn’t the most attractive feature of a city, it is definitely one of the most important. The introduction of proper underground sewers was a major step forward, and helped to eradicate many diseases and horrible living conditions.

Watercourses can also, however, be a thing of beauty. Rivers, streams and canals can all be considered watercourses, and offer both practicality and beauty to a city. In the reading on the Canal du Midi last week, it was shown that the construction of such a large canal could produce economic benefit for an entire town. Laborers were given jobs working on the canal; they were given fairly good incentive and decent working conditions to take part in this mammoth job.

In this week’s reading by Ian Douglas, it focuses on how watercourses were often vital in considering the location of cities, as well as the relationships between rivers and cities themselves. Large cities such as Paris, London, Bangkok and Chongqing are all located on rivers. The reading discusses the advantages of these cities being sited on rivers, as well as the disadvantages of floods and pollution associated with the location.

Flooding by avulsion helped shape agricultural settlement, as crops were positioned to take full advantage of this. Once channel networks were abandoned and canals constructed, the prosperity of these urban settlements did decline to an extent, as natural watercourses were disrupted.

Douglas discusses the impact that the Euphrates and Tigris rivers had on neighboring cities. The water from these rivers was vital to the cities’ survival, for drinking and irrigation. However, when these rivers flooded, this proved to be a serious problem for the cities. The watercourses were both vital and problematic to the city.

Douglas also discusses the case of the Indus River in north-western South Asia. It is shown that the original cities were often built right up on the shores of the Indus River, however flooding destroyed many of these cities and forced them to build citadels right on the shore, to help assist with the flooding. To this day, flooding still occurs on the Indus River, claiming many lives. ‘Since independence in 1947, floods in the Indus River Basin in Pakistan have claimed more than 7,000 lives and cause massive infrastructure and crop losses’. (Douglas, 2013). Similar occurrences can be seen with the Yangtze River, with many deaths and destruction to cities caused by flooding of the river. Concrete retaining walls had been built since to help defend the cities from massive floods.

Many towns on the Mississippi River were not built on hills or raised up, but they had built walls and levees to keep floodwaters out of their cities. The levees often broke and gave way, and in 2005, Hurricane Katrina devastated the city of New Orleans when levees gave way and floodwaters tore through the city. Most people living here didn’t have insurance, and merely packed up and left.

In conclusion, watercourses can serve cities with drinking water, water for irrigation, transportation of sewage, and much more. However, these urban watercourses often lead to devastation of cities via flooding, leading to cities trying to combat this through the construction of infrastructure such as concrete walls and levees. Even so, natural disasters such as floods can be unimaginable in scale, and it is next to impossible to predict just how devastating a certain flood may be. Hurricane Katrina is an example of how cities may think that they are safe and protected from floods, however the scale of such natural disasters can be underestimated.

References:

Douglas, I. (2013). Cities: An Environmental History. London: IB Tauris, pp.233-251.

Topic 4A: Life, Death and Disease in the City

Life, Death and Disease in the City

Adina Chua

This week’s reading by Michael Hebbert primarily emphasizes on the relationship between town planning and public health, of which can be demonstrated through two paradigms.

The first paradigm discusses the importance of street ventilation for public health. During the early nineteenth century, the main goal for the sanitary movement was to achieve a fall in mortality rate and increased life expectancy. Contaminated air was amongst the major health concerns of the time, being weighed just as heavily as concerns for water and sewage, which arose soon after. Filthy air accumulated from decomposing carcasses, waste and other organic matter caused fresh air to be a privilege to have. Enclosed buildings and inadequate street designs, cul-de-sac and narrow streets for instance, were the fundamental causes for poor air quality.

           

Cul-de-sacs inhibited the free movement of air and allowed for the accumulation of dirt. Town planners opted for a different approach known as the concept of thoroughfares where streets were wide and intercepted one another. This not only promoted better air quality but also allowed for public interaction through open spaces. However, the success of standardizing an urban area with an open layout caused for much dispute. Those who had properties of their own were unwilling to permit this change and modification; hence they were compelled to practice their rights of ownership, as adjustments to the urban layout were also unfamiliar grounds to the public. This led to a delayed advancement of street infrastructure.

Nonetheless, with evident improvements in public health, people were convinced and gave support to their local government. Epidemiology played a significant role as it helped to better understand the cause of these illnesses through mapping and analyzing. Take for example, the discovery by John Snow that cholera was water borne during the 19^th century epidemics in London. The mapping of areas mainly affected by the disease pointed out the root of the problem.

With such an established street design, there wasn’t much thought on how the lack of greenery would affect the public physically and psychologically. There were fewer human-environmental relationships, which made people seem sickly. This unsettling state led to the concept of The Garden City and also the progress towards suburbia. Urban developments began to sprawl into the outer suburbs instead of promoting urban density. Society favors a country-like feel of being surrounded by greenery and minimal noise disturbances, as dense urban living was deemed unhealthy. Thus, cul-de-sacs became a positive characteristic to have in the neighbourhood as it minimizes congestion and noises.

Figure 1: The garden city leading to cul-de-sac

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During this time, town planning still focused on preventive medicine and how the environment affected human health in comparison to the science of bacteriology. The Garden City caused for less public interaction as there were lack of social infrastructure and also isolated from the central urban area.

The second paradigm discusses about the neighbourhood unit through the eugenic movement. The Eugenics Society emphasizes on the improvement of the human race by carrying out ‘biological cultivation’. They thought that if the desired genes were selected and made to procreate, it would improve the genetic quality of the human population.

Preventive medicine was of importance during the eugenics movement because even though selective genes were made to procreate, the public still had to be proactive and refrain from illnesses. There was a need for the continuation of these well-endowed traits as well as the delivery of this concept to the public. Preventive medicine would promote a community-based society where people could interact whilst carrying out activities instead of being segregated in their respective suburban areas. Town planners play an important role in ensuring that all these amenities link to one another for easy access.

The clean sweep approach requires the reconstruction of the entire urban area on the basis of the cellular principle. Where an open layout was desired but also the linkage of all amenities. This would increase courtship and birth rates as well as promote better family ties. However, these ideas were implemented momentarily or even non-existent as the National Health Service (NHS) of London was placed under ministerial control instead of community physicians. This was also the case in Melbourne where the Legislative and Local council were in dispute to see who was responsible for the sewerage and water supply. This shows that each form of government wanted a part over the advancement of urban areas and to prove that they have the ability to bring success.

It was unfamiliar at the time for the combination of social infrastructure to be integrated into residential areas. In addition, the NHS was more reliant on doctors than preventive medicine. Thus, NHS took matters into their own hands and without aid from town planners, public health including its environmental surroundings manage to improve, however not completely. Hence, town planners were criticized for all the justifications and changes made which costs significant adjustments for society.

As stated earlier, the relationship between public health and town planning could be observed through two paradigms. However, during the turn of the 19^th century, with new ideas and discussions, a third paradigm emerged. The two important concepts were ‘New Urbanism’ and ‘New Public Health’.

‘New Public Health’ came about due to research showing that in modern times, environmental hygiene can result in longer life expectancy in comparison to clinical interference. This falls back to the concept of preventive medicine. The World Health Organization (WHO) disputed against the dependence on clinical practitioners. The public needs to grasp an insight into the relationship between how the natural environment will affect the built environment as well as public health. Despite shifting back towards preventive medicine, the “New Public Health” people did not contemplate on town planning. It was much more on how to educate the public of this new approach.

“New Urbanism” is much like the urban environment we live in today and is greatly influenced by town planning. It intends to encourage a denser urban living with mixed-use of streets. Instead of confined cul-de-sacs as a place of social interaction, thoroughfares and public spaces would take its place. This concept aims at creating a society that merges confidently and adequately through a neighbourhood surrounded with different social infrastructures. Take for instance; a street-based neighbourhood would promote pedestrianism and greater interaction with different individuals. With urban density, the city is able to promote public transportation, which will reduce the use of cars. Hence, another important factor of “New Urbanism” is that it draws upon environmental sustainability.

Figure 2: “New Urbanism”

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Topic 3B: Three Colonial Cities - Ariadne Hasiotis

Taking a look at Three Colonial Cities

This piece will explore the history of three colonial cities that were touched on in recent Urban History lectures and readings; Zeelandia (Dutch), Sydney (British) and Dalny (Russian and later Japanese).  Commonalities as well as differences were observed in the plans, urban forms and development cycles of these cities.

In each case, these colonial cities were established as maritime ports. Their primary function was to facilitate trade, funnel goods from the outposts to the home colonial powers and to transport people to these new settlements. Also in each case, an opportunity existed to build these cities as they offered tabula rasa (a “blank slate”).

Important differences were also observed. Key factors which are thought to have influenced the development of colonial cities include:

     ·    The size of the indigenous population relative to the population of the colonial settlers and also whether the colonial power needed to harness the local population as a workforce

     ·    Whether the colonial power instituted a policy of segregation of ethnicities (settlers, indigenous people, immigrants)

     ·    The development of the cities’ hinterland for primary industry (sometimes in order to fulfil the needs of the home colonial power). This required a workforce (either indigenous or through immigration)

     ·    The creation of infrastructure for the good of the city and all of its inhabitants

The three studied cities are reviewed in this context.

Zeelandia was established by the Dutch in Formosa (the modern day island of Taiwan) in 1624. As a port, it was well situated between China, Japan and the Philippines and became an important trading link for the Dutch East India Company. Zeelandia offers unique insights in the study of colonial cities as the entire cycle of its development was condensed to just four decades. Zeelandia reverted to Chinese rule in 1662.

When the Dutch arrived, the population of Formosa consisted mainly of indigenous inhabitants. The native Formosans did not participate in the development of Zeelandia. However the Dutch soon expanded their activities from purely trading to the opening of the hinterland for the cultivation of sugar and rice. This required a workforce. For this reason the Dutch encouraged Chinese immigration to Zeelandia. The Chinese not only provided workers to the colony, but also acted as financiers, tax-collectors and administrators on behalf of the Dutch. The collaboration of the Dutch and the Chinese in finance and administration was instrumental in the success of Zeelandia.

Zeelandia was a town built ex nihilio (from “scratch”) and was built to a plan. The plan was a mixture of the Dutch principles of the ‘ideal city’ and the Chinese ideas for walled cities. Both plans were essentially rectangular (grid) based layouts.  Zeelandia comprised of two parts: A fortified walled city (Castle Zeelandia) where the Dutch lived and a city outside of the walls where the Chinese lived (segregation).

The success of Zeelandia also led to its demise. The integration of large numbers of Chinese brought success to Zeelandia but they continued to maintain family ties with the mainland. For this reason the Chinese felt they had a moral claim on the colony.  Zeelandia was conquered by the Chinese war-lord Zheng in 1662.

Sydney was established by the British in 1788, when the first fleet landed in Sydney cove. The site was chosen because of its water supply (The Tank Stream, which still runs underground today) and the unsuitability of nearby Botany Bay as a harbour.

During the first years of settlement, Sydney was a penal colony.  Of the original first fleet settlers, 788 were convicts. Early attempts at agriculture were met with mixed success and the young colony had to endure isolation and near starvation. The situation however steadily improved with subsequent fleet arrivals and more convict labour.

Farming and the private sector economy started to improve when free settlers began to arrive from Britain. Their numbers were augmented by retired soldiers whose service had ended and freed convicts. These groups were granted land for farming.

Indigenous people did not participate significantly in the affairs of the colonial city. Colonisation had a disastrous effect on the indigenous population of Sydney. Within a few years a smallpox epidemic reduced their numbers by 90%  

Sydney was not built to a plan and has been dubbed the ‘accidental city’. It is characterised by twisting narrow streets which do not afford free flow of air and good drainage. Figure 1 below is an early map of Sydney that demonstrates the somewhat haphazard approach to planning of the city. Successive governors of NSW tried to correct the situation by setting down plans for streets but they were resisted by powerful land-owners. As a result, Sydney became an example of town planning to be avoided and subsequent colonial settlements in Australia (Orange, Yass, Mildura, Melbourne) were built to more traditional Roman grids.

[ Figure 1: Smith & Gardiner’s Map of Sydney and suburbs 1855]

The Chinese city of Dalian experienced two colonial masters before it reverted to China in 1945. It was established as the colonial city of Dalny by the Russian empire in 1898. Dalny was a port which connected Russia’s Trans-Siberian railway to the trading routes of the Pacific.

The indigenous population of the area were Chinese. The construction work on the port and railway undertaken by the Russians brought economic opportunity to the area and thousands of Chinese settled there. The Russians, however, generally mistreated the Chinese and atrocities against the Chinese were not uncommon (including a massacre of 4,000 Chinese inhabitants)

The ‘European City’ of Dalny was built to a radial plan which was inspired by the ‘Garden City’ movement. The Russians spared no expense in establishing the ‘European City’. The same could not be said of the ‘Chinese Town’. It was shabbily built and segregated from the European town; this separation of the ‘European’ and ‘Chinese’ cities is displayed in Figure 2 below. The Chinese, who had been originally uprooted to make way for the ‘European City’, had no right to acquire property or live there.

[Figure 2: Dalny; The European City (formed to a radial plan) and the (segregated) Chinese City]

In 1905, the Japanese defeated Russia in war and succeeded the Russians as the Colonial masters of Dalny, which was renamed Dalian. Dalian was later absorbed into the newly established Japanese mainland colony of Machuoko, a puppet state whose 10 million Chinese inhabitants were essentially treated as slaves by the Japanese.

Topic 3A: Transport and its Impact on Cities - Lucas Wells

I felt that this week’s readings concentrated on two main topics. How transport can shape and reshape the urban and the rural environment and how transport planning/design/construction is carried out and implemented between state and non-state actors.

Mukerji discusses the history of the Canal du Midi. At the time a massive engineering undertaking that exceeded the knowledge required at the time for many of the issues raised. However the most enduring feature of this canal was how it reshaped the rural environment and economy. The construction of a canal from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean was seen as a double security for the French state. The ability to route trade though its own territory instead of through the Straits of Gibraltar and the imposition of the power of the state over “dissident regions to create a permanent state presence” – in this case, Languedoc.

The idea for the canal was from an entrepreneur who leveraged this desire by France for the above goals to further his own power and wealth. The partnership between the state and private enterprise was not new. However the infrastructure was therefore built with an eye on benefitting both the state and the entrepreneur –with the entrepreneur probably benefitting most as the limits of state power and reach were much more limited in the 17^th century.

The ability to build the canal was hindered by the sciences and knowledge of the time. Adequate maps of the area were predominantly military in nature, but their shortcomings were bolstered by ethnography that was undertaken to incorporate local understanding and knowledge of the areas. Ethnography therefore helped to balance a little the needs and desires of both the state and the private industry in deciding some aspects of the canal. However even this was unable to guarantee the success of the canal. Which while finished, failed to live up to the hype.

This balance and the consequences are also discussed in the Kellett reading. Even though there is a 150-200 year difference between the construction of the Canal du Midi and the construction of train lines within urban areas of England, the limitations or restrictions on state/private partnerships to build transport infrastructure is even starker. Kellett talks about the impact and effect the “driving of the railway into the city” had on the urban infrastructure and social fabric. The viaducts needed for the rail lines saw the wholesale demolition of large tracks of existing housing and created impermeable barriers amongst neighbourhoods.  Such changes also saw the flight of capital to improve residential areas close to such railways as “they were frozen as far as renovation or improvement was concerned, as completely as if time had stopped in 1830. Capital sunk into replacing residential housing in such an environment with a more up-to-date equivalent was obviously considered capital wasted”.

It is hardly surprising when you consider the environment around railways as Charles Dickens describes, “Everything around is blackened. There are dark pools of water, muddy lanes, and miserable habitations far below. There are jagged walls and filthy houses close at hand, and through the battered roofs and broken windows, wretched rooms are seen…”.

This passage gives an indication of not only the environmentally effects of coal-burning trains but the height at which they dominated low rise neighbourhoods and the close proximity they had to residential areas.

The desire to build railways was based on economic factors that were impressed upon governments as a way to improve the economy of cities.  And while railways did activate and cluster economic and manufacturing close to them, they could be described as compressing these cities rather an assisting them to expand. By demolishing so much housing to build railways without replacement or improving the existing housing stock, workers were forced into substandard housing to remain within easy commute distance to work opportunities. It would seem that the ideal of a house with a garden in the outer suburbs or satellite towns was enabled by the very infrastructure that seemed to accentuate and propagate all that was wrong with the urban.

Both the readings touch on the rapidly changing and advancing nature of the state, technology and science. However they also highlight the fascination with building and reducing risk more than the consequences or impact such infrastructure might have. The Canal du Midi, though it was able to overcome many of the seemingly insurmountable challenges of building a canal over mountains without adequately understanding the watershed areas needed to power it; was eventually limited by the inability to build an adequate Mediterranean port that would not continually silt up. However its construction reshaped the environment physically, socially and economically even though it was not as successful as envisaged.

The reshaping of the Victorian cities was even more pronounced due to the larger populations involved and the more concentrated nature of the cities. The railways, while viable, used and successful; had a major impact on the layout and functioning of the cities they penetrated.  They functioned to expand the economic reach of cities while also enabling a geographic disconnected between industrial inner cities and residential outer cities. Little heed was initially paid to the disruptive effects railway viaducts would have on the urban fabric as private enterprise was less affected by the consequence of this than the state.

While not covered by the readings, eventually the state took over the planning, construction and control of transport infrastructure. I can only surmise that the ad-hoc nature of much of this infrastructure, which had narrow economic and financial foci and were not always required to take into account existing or future problems and needs, had an impact on the state acquiring more and more of these rights. The current debates over public/private partnerships with governments shows that many of the lessons learnt in the past have now been forgotten. However the balance between the private, the state and the general public has evened out much more than during the histories exampled in the readings.